Modern JavaScript (ES6-ES2025)

Write clean, performant, maintainable JavaScript using modern language features. This skill covers ES6 through ES2025, emphasizing immutability, functional patterns, and expressive syntax.

Quick Decision Trees

"Which array method should I use?"

What do I need?
├─ Transform each element           → .map()
├─ Keep some elements               → .filter()
├─ Find one element                 → .find() / .findLast()
├─ Check if condition met           → .some() / .every()
├─ Reduce to single value           → .reduce()
├─ Get last element                 → .at(-1)
├─ Sort without mutating            → .toSorted()
├─ Reverse without mutating         → .toReversed()
├─ Group by property                → Object.groupBy()
└─ Flatten nested arrays            → .flat() / .flatMap()

"How do I handle nullish values?"

Nullish handling?
├─ Safe property access              → obj?.prop / obj?.[key]
├─ Safe method call                  → obj?.method?.()
├─ Default for null/undefined only   → value ?? 'default'
├─ Default for any falsy             → value || 'default'
├─ Assign if null/undefined          → obj.prop ??= 'default'
└─ Check property exists             → Object.hasOwn(obj, 'key')

"Should I mutate or copy?"

Always prefer non-mutating methods:
├─ Sort array      → .toSorted()    (not .sort())
├─ Reverse array   → .toReversed()  (not .reverse())
├─ Splice array    → .toSpliced()   (not .splice())
├─ Update element  → .with(i, val)  (not arr[i] = val)
├─ Add to array    → [...arr, item] (not .push())
└─ Merge objects   → {...obj, key}  (not Object.assign())

ES Version Quick Reference

Version	Year	Key Features
ES6	2015	let/const, arrow functions, classes, destructuring, spread, Promises, modules, Symbol, Map/Set, Proxy, generators
ES2016	2016	Array.includes(), exponentiation operator **
ES2017	2017	async/await, Object.values/entries, padStart/padEnd, trailing commas, SharedArrayBuffer, Atomics
ES2018	2018	Rest/spread for objects, for await...of, Promise.finally(), RegExp named groups, lookbehind, dotAll flag
ES2019	2019	.flat(), .flatMap(), Object.fromEntries(), trimStart/End(), optional catch binding, stable Array.sort()
ES2020	2020	Optional chaining ?., nullish coalescing ??, BigInt, Promise.allSettled(), globalThis, dynamic import()
ES2021	2021	String.replaceAll(), Promise.any(), logical assignment ??= and or=, numeric separators 1_000_000
ES2022	2022	.at(), Object.hasOwn(), top-level await, private class fields #field, static blocks, Error.cause
ES2023	2023	.toSorted(), .toReversed(), .toSpliced(), .with(), .findLast(), .findLastIndex(), hashbang grammar
ES2024	2024	Object.groupBy(), Map.groupBy(), Promise.withResolvers(), RegExp v flag, resizable ArrayBuffer
ES2025	2025	Iterator helpers (.map, .filter, .take), Set methods (.union, .intersection), RegExp.escape(), using/await using

Modernization Patterns

Array Access

// ❌ Legacy
const last = arr[arr.length - 1];
const secondLast = arr[arr.length - 2];

// ✅ Modern (ES2022)
const last = arr.at(-1);
const secondLast = arr.at(-2);

Non-Mutating Array Operations

// ❌ Mutates original array
const sorted = arr.sort((a, b) => a - b);
const reversed = arr.reverse();

// ✅ Returns new array (ES2023)
const sorted = arr.toSorted((a, b) => a - b);
const reversed = arr.toReversed();
const updated = arr.with(2, 'new value');
const removed = arr.toSpliced(1, 1);

String Replacement

// ❌ Legacy with regex
const result = str.replace(/foo/g, 'bar');

// ✅ Modern (ES2021)
const result = str.replaceAll('foo', 'bar');

Grouping Data

// ❌ Manual grouping
const grouped = items.reduce((acc, item) => {
  const key = item.category;
  acc[key] = acc[key] || [];
  acc[key].push(item);
  return acc;
}, {});

// ✅ Modern (ES2024)
const grouped = Object.groupBy(items, item => item.category);

Nullish Handling

// ❌ Falsy check (0, '', false are valid values)
const value = input || 'default';
const name = user && user.profile && user.profile.name;

// ✅ Nullish check (only null/undefined)
const value = input ?? 'default';
const name = user?.profile?.name;

Property Existence

// ❌ Can be fooled by prototype or overwritten hasOwnProperty
if (obj.hasOwnProperty('key')) { }

// ✅ Modern (ES2022)
if (Object.hasOwn(obj, 'key')) { }

Logical Assignment

// ❌ Verbose assignment
if (obj.prop === null || obj.prop === undefined) {
  obj.prop = 'default';
}

// ✅ Modern (ES2021)
obj.prop ??= 'default';  // Assign if null/undefined
obj.count ||= 0;         // Assign if falsy
obj.enabled &&= check(); // Assign if truthy

Async Patterns

Promise Combinators

// Wait for all, fail if any fails
const [users, posts] = await Promise.all([fetchUsers(), fetchPosts()]);

// Wait for all, get status of each
const results = await Promise.allSettled([fetchA(), fetchB()]);
results.forEach(r => {
  if (r.status === 'fulfilled') console.log(r.value);
  else console.error(r.reason);
});

// First to succeed
const fastest = await Promise.any([fetchFromCDN1(), fetchFromCDN2()]);

// First to settle
const winner = await Promise.race([fetchData(), timeout(5000)]);

Promise.withResolvers (ES2024)

// ❌ Legacy pattern
let resolve, reject;
const promise = new Promise((res, rej) => {
  resolve = res;
  reject = rej;
});

// ✅ Modern (ES2024)
const { promise, resolve, reject } = Promise.withResolvers();

Top-Level Await (ES2022)

// In ES modules, await at top level
const config = await fetch('/config.json').then(r => r.json());
const db = await connectDatabase(config);

export { db };

Functional Patterns

Immutable Object Updates

// Add/update property
const updated = { ...user, age: 31 };

// Remove property
const { password, ...userWithoutPassword } = user;

// Nested update
const updated = {
  ...state,
  user: { ...state.user, name: 'New Name' }
};

Array Transformations

// Chain transformations (ES2023)
const result = users
  .filter(u => u.active)
  .map(u => u.name)
  .toSorted();

// Using flatMap for filter+map (single pass)
const activeNames = users.flatMap(u => u.active ? [u.name] : []);

// ES2024: Group then process
const byStatus = Object.groupBy(users, u => u.active ? 'active' : 'inactive');
const activeNames = byStatus.active?.map(u => u.name) ?? [];

Composition

const pipe = (...fns) => x => fns.reduce((v, f) => f(v), x);
const compose = (...fns) => x => fns.reduceRight((v, f) => f(v), x);

const processUser = pipe(
  user => ({ ...user, name: user.name.trim() }),
  user => ({ ...user, email: user.email.toLowerCase() }),
  user => ({ ...user, createdAt: new Date() })
);

Destructuring Patterns

Object Destructuring

// Basic with rename and default
const { name: userName, age = 18 } = user;

// Nested
const { address: { city, country } } = user;

// Rest
const { id, ...userData } = user;

Array Destructuring

// Skip elements
const [first, , third] = array;

// Rest
const [head, ...tail] = array;

// Swap variables
[a, b] = [b, a];

// Function returns
const [x, y] = getCoordinates();

Anti-Patterns

Anti-Pattern	Problem	Modern Solution
arr[arr.length-1]	Verbose, error-prone	arr.at(-1)
.sort() on original	Mutates array	.toSorted()
.replace(/g/) for all	Regex overhead	.replaceAll()
obj.hasOwnProperty()	Can be overwritten	Object.hasOwn()
value || default	0, '', false treated as falsy	value ?? default
obj && obj.prop && obj.prop.method()	Verbose null checks	obj?.prop?.method?.()
for (let i = 0; ...)	Index bugs, verbose	.map(), .filter(), for...of
new Promise((res, rej) => ...)	Boilerplate	Promise.withResolvers()
Manual array grouping	Verbose, error-prone	Object.groupBy()

Best Practices

1. Use const by default — Only use let when reassignment is needed
2. Prefer arrow functions — Especially for callbacks and short functions
3. Use template literals — Instead of string concatenation
4. Destructure early — Extract what you need at function start
5. Avoid mutations — Use .toSorted(), .toReversed(), spread operator
6. Use optional chaining — Prevent "Cannot read property of undefined"
7. Use nullish coalescing — ?? for defaults, not || (unless intentional)
8. Prefer array methods — .map(), .filter(), .find() over loops
9. Use async/await — Instead of .then() chains
10. Handle errors properly — try/catch with async/await

Reference Documentation

ES Version References

File	Purpose
references/ES2016-ES2017.md	includes, async/await, Object.values/entries, string padding
references/ES2018-ES2019.md	rest/spread objects, flat/flatMap, RegExp named groups
references/ES2022-ES2023.md	.at(), .toSorted(), .toReversed(), .findLast(), class features
references/ES2024.md	Object.groupBy, Promise.withResolvers, RegExp v flag
references/ES2025.md	Set methods, iterator helpers, using/await using
references/UPCOMING.md	Temporal API, Decorators, Decorator Metadata

Pattern References

File	Purpose
references/PROMISES.md	Promise fundamentals, async/await, combinators
references/CONCURRENCY.md	Parallel, batched, pool patterns, retry, cancellation
references/IMMUTABILITY.md	Immutable data patterns, pure functions
references/COMPOSITION.md	Higher-order functions, memoization, monads
references/CHEATSHEET.md	Quick syntax reference

Resources

Specifications

• ECMAScript Specification: https://tc39.es/ecma262/ (living standard)
• TC39 Proposals: https://github.com/tc39/proposals (upcoming features)
• TC39 Process: https://tc39.es/process-document/ (how features are added)

Documentation

• MDN Web Docs: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript
• JavaScript.info: https://javascript.info/

Compatibility

• Can I Use: https://caniuse.com (browser support tables)
• Node.js ES Compatibility: https://node.green/